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Section 2: Building the Black Community: The Family Section 2: Building the Black Community: The Church Section 2: Building the Black Community: The School Section 2: Quest for Economic Autonomy and Equal Rights Section 2: Memory and Mourning Section 2: Violence

Biographical Sidebar:
Francis L. Cardoza

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The son of a prominent Jewish businessman of Charleston and a his free black wife, Francis L. Cardozo (1837-1903) played a leading role in promoting black education in the city.

After graduating in 1861 from the University of Glasgow in Scotland, he moved to Connecticut, where he served as a Congregationalist minister.
Copyright 2003
A New Birth of Freedom: Reconstruction During the Civil War The Meaning of Freedom: Black and White Responses to Slavery